PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING “问题为本”学习法

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4 w% z4 N- Q8 w9 v% gDefinition 定义
Problem Based Learning (PBL) is a term used within education for a range of pedagogic approaches that encourage students to learn through the structured exploration of a research problem. Reworking the familiar lecture/tutorial model, students work in small self-directed teams to define, carry out and reflect upon a research task, which can often be a ‘real-life’ problem. The tutor acts as a facilitator and resource person to whom they can come to for advice or guidance. It is used in a variety of disciplines and teaching situations, whether within one course unit or to deliver a whole degree curriculum, and with undergraduates just as much as postgraduates. Some commentators adopt an evangelical approach to ‘marketing’ the PBL acronym and approach, and seek to distinguish pure ‘PBL’ from a broader set of related approaches that they label ‘pbl’. This overview questions such a distinction.

Background 背景
Team-work, problem solving and independent thinking are invaluable skills for everyday life. Problem Based Learning (PBL) is a term describing techniques that make students take an active, task-oriented, and self-directed approach to their own learning. It can also provide students with insights into the research process. There are a variety of different approaches that travel under the PBL moniker. The model adopted is less important than the intention – namely that problems, tasks and unexpected situations form the starting point for learning. The classic PBL model was developed in the 1960s within medical education, and is sometimes criticised for having a rather inflexible and linear structure. This C-SAP synopsis describes how it can be adapted for use within the social sciences, encourages you (as a tutor or student) to experiment and change the model to suit your needs, and discusses the issues and problems you might encounter.

/ O( D& v& J* B/ A6 sHow is ‘Problem Based Learning’ different from other forms of learning? A simplistic distinction might be that in ‘traditional’ curricula teachers tend to start by providing information, and then expect students to use the information to solve problems. In a problem- based approach to learning the problem comes first. Students both define the problem and gather information to explore it. Working in self-directed groups, students thus take an active and systematic approach to defining and exploring a research problem. They are not expected to reach the ‘right’ answer. There may not be right answers. The technique is characterised by the juxtaposition of individual and collective analytical work, combining team-based exploration and synthesis with individual research and analysis.

% l, t! B6 a( J' yThe Research Evidence 研究证明
PBL became a feature of medical education during the 1960s, and has since been taken up in fields of professional training (eg nursing, architecture, engineering). Its adoption within the humanities and social sciences is much less developed, and it has been argued that it is easier to use in ‘applied disciplines’. Such a view is however likely to be the consequence of different disciplinary traditions, cultures of teaching and views about the status of knowledge. It is also the case that many in the social sciences see themselves as already teaching using a problem-based approach, though such approaches are rarely benefit from the structured integration of individual and group work that PBL advocates.

There are a number of different approaches which journey under the title of problem-based learning, leading some to distinguish an ‘authentic’ PBL which sticks closely to a set of particular set of principles and processes first systematized by medical educationalists at McMaster University. Other writers feel that there can never be one single approach to all teaching and learning contexts, pointing out that the label itself objectifies a single technique as ‘the’ answer to a complex set of pedagogic issues. Much of the PBL literature adopts an evangelical tone and this has led to hostility in some quarters, together with a strong defense of the values of ‘traditional’ teaching methods. Concern has also been expressed that PBL is being used as as a way of reducing the costs of teaching. Perhaps it is best seen as one of a number of moves towards making learning more student-centred, experiential and activity-based. As an approach PBL has both advantages and disadvantages. It is certainly not a short-cut, and requires careful preparation and facilitation, a supportive curriculum structure in which the learning process is prioritised, and thought given to appropriate assessment criteria.

" w. h8 H! K  X, r: p% u' _/ H# |The move to ‘evidence-based’ practice, particularly within medicine, has led to attempts at reviewing the efficacy of PBL as a teaching practice in comparison with other teaching and learning styles. In general, the research is still inconclusive, and very little has been carried out in the social sciences. Large-scale reviews suggest that PBL may increase skills-levels, but may result in poorer performance on traditional tests of subject knowledge. Some suggestion has been made that it is also unrealistically demanding in terms of resources. Other research has suggested that it can be enjoyable and nurturing, but also stressful for students. Useful further reading includes Boud and Feletti (1997), Savin-Baden (2000) and the research resources assembled at the web-sites listed below.

* U. u- d& C. l$ T; p7 JPutting it into Practice把它变成实践
6 t' I% {9 L& K2 v$ G7 J  |One way of using PBL in your courses (there is no right way!) involves holding two linked workshops/seminars, each lasting an hour (or more), usually held a week apart. In the first session the group is given a carefully-chosen “trigger” problem or scenario. This may be a sentence, a picture or even an object - anything which provokes discussion around a topic. Careful choice of a focused “trigger” will ensure that students will explore a research problem relating to the course or module outcomes, or the substantive teaching topic. You may find that you want to give the students more focus by actually giving them a research problem, rather than expecting them to define it. As with the choice of trigger, this requires careful preparation of a focused research problem.
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! a1 d1 ~9 m9 l+ V$ l$ m( C) sAfter appointing a chairperson and a note-taker, the participants "brainstorm" possible research topics leading out of the trigger. After discussion, the group define a researchable "problem", and analyse ways of exploring different angles to this problem, and then set themselves research tasks leading out of it. You might want to suggest that they come up with three research aims for the week, such as a review of the relevant literature, preparing a short bibliography, or carrying out an interview, The tutor acts as a resource person, suggesting readings or sources of information, but not intervening in the group discussion unless necessary. The tutor may not even want to sit in on the whole session. The group return a week later to pool their new knowledge about the topics they've set themselves, and reflect on the original research aims they set themselves.

Building on teaching experience, we have adapted the PBL process to five stages. These stages provide a semi-structured framework for students to work with, but you may want to adapt this framework to suit your needs. Learning is not linear, and neither is PBL, so encourage students to recognise that they might find themselves going back and forth between different three stages

The following PBL stages present one way of using PBL. Stages 1 –3 can be used at a first hour-long session, session 4 over the subsequent few days, and Stage 5 at the second session – which may take longer. Adjust the times to suit your needs)

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• STAGE 1: DEFINITION (10 mins)
  • Appoint chairperson and notetaker. Discuss first reactions to trigger provided by tutor.
  • What sense does the group make of the trigger?
  • What possible research problems lead from the trigger? List them.

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• STAGE 2: ANALYSIS (30 mins)
  • ‘Brainstorm’ these possible research problems.
  • What explanations or interpretations are there in the group about these problems?
  • Which explanation/interpretations seem most useful and why?

• STAGE 3: RESEARCH AIMS (15 mins)
  • Formulate the key research problem /hypothesis for investigation
  • What further knowledge does the group need to explore this problem?
  • Define three specific research tasks to be completed. Divide up tasks.
  • Agree on how the group will work together during the week - eg email contact?

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• STAGE 4: RESEARCH (Set a limit to time for independent work, eg three hours)
  • Acquire knowledge in relation to research questions
  • Group or individual research over the week, limited to 3 hours
  • Complete task eg preparation of an annotated bibliography of material related to the problem for the other groups.

• STAGE 5: SYNTHESIS (In a second session, usually 1-2 hours long)
  • Review the newly acquired knowledge within the group.
  • Pool findings - do they help an understanding of the research problem?
  • Final group response to the trigger.
  • Reflections on the learning process

Issues and Debates问题和辩论
7 ]& i6 `1 m$ @. Y/ w' l9 xWhat are the advantages of this approach to learning?
It provides a flexible learning process, enabling students to decide and prioritise their own learning agenda. It gives students a chance to draw on their own experiential knowledge, and allows them to reflect on the very process of their own thinking and meaning-making. It can make them more goal-oriented, seeing their work in a larger perspective, and is an excellent introduction to the research process. In PBL one is allowed to make mistakes and learn from them. Finally, group interaction enables individuals to see the many perspectives on a problem. All of these are valuable professional and team-working skills for life beyond university.
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Does it have disadvantages for students?
Research has shown that whilst this style of student-centred learning can be enjoyable and nurturing for students, it is also very different to the teaching they have already received, and so can be stressful and disorienting. Students are no longer given the “answers”, and this can require a change in attitude and mind-set. Some practitioners recommend that it should be introduced in a student’s first year on a course.
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TEACHING ISSUES: 教学问题：
What role does the tutor play?
+ {+ x* G: _+ W) W$ e! NThe tutor adopts the role of ‘information broker’ during the learning process, not adopting a directive stance, but responding with guidance as necessary. He or she may not need to be with the group all the time One writer compares the role of tutor to that of team “coach”, motivating and guiding from the sidelines! There may be occasions where the tutor intervenes if he/she thinks that the students are not focusing sufficiently, or are having problems defining a research problem to investigate or deciding on their research tasks. Again, the tutor can define the level of direction he or she thinks appropriate.
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Should PBL replace other forms of teaching such as lectures?
* S; c  H( n9 c9 `PBL can be used at all levels to complement or replace other methods. For those new to a discipline, PBL works most effectively when used to build on and develop ideas presented in lectures or readings. There is no reason why an initial short lecture could not be part and parcel of a PBL session. For more advanced undergraduates and postgraduates, PBL can be an energising and rewarding alternative to the lecture/tutorial approach. It can be used either as another tool in a teaching repertoire or as a means of delivering a whole course.
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Does it take more time and resources?
7 b" T4 ]5 V, |; L) V9 tThe semi-structured nature of the PBL requires different demands of tutor time and resources, and may well involve extensive preparation. The tutor will have to think about the different types of information resources the students might make use of, particularly given the increasing number of web-based resources. This might require the preparation of briefing notes for the students, a longer reading list, or advice on search strategies. The tutor may want to be available (in office hours or via email) during the week when the students are pursuing their research tasks.

Can one use it in large classes?
2 G: ?$ e6 m% f& Q/ J9 Y% aA large class puts different demands on the resource person, especially as eight to ten participants are the ideal number for a PBL group. One can however divide a larger class into several PBL teams, and move from one group to another providing guidance and advice. The student groups can of course report back to a larger plenary session, sharing their insights both orally and in the form of circulated reports.
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- \' X+ B3 J! Z2 I+ fWhat about assessment?
3 y7 b( j9 q$ l4 Z4 Z: cPBL can be assessed like other group project work, with individual and group contributions being marked. PBL is most likely to be successful if it is closely integrated into the course design. Curriculum content, learning outcomes and approaches to assessment are all interlinked, and will all need to be considered, along with the staff development needs that the introduction of PBL might imply.

0 e+ r. f# r! t& i% d5 S$ y3 GWhat is the Trigger?
! L7 I& i( P) u* oThe process usually starts with what some call a ‘trigger’, often a specific sentence or paragraph that opens up an issue, sparks a debate, begs a question or hints at a problem. It is important to have a tightly focused trigger to focus students onto a specific topic - inevitably discussions will diverge and become more broad. The tutor will probably choose a trigger that relates in some way to a substantive course topic or learning outcome. Alternatively, the tutor may just want to set the students a specific problem, and skip the use of a trigger.

Examples of triggers might include a quotation from an interview, a citation from an article or book, a set of statistics, an image or article from a newspaper or magazine, a video clip or a “found” object. There is no restriction to the sort of trigger that might be used – and experience will show what works well. One anthropologist used quotations from fieldwork informants to provide examples of “lived experience” that led to research problems being formulated.
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' ~% e! R$ m2 ^) g  \Resources
; w, W# f' G: Q% f& N1 \Coventry University / LTSN PBL site : www.hss.coventry.ac.uk/pbl/
This site has a variety of resources, details upcoming events, and has an insightful reserach paper by Savin-Baden and Wilkie
/ g$ t. W! J! \& o8 g7 g; [2 Y. lResearch into PBL site: www.hebes.mdx.ac.uk/teaching/Research/PEPBL
: F/ I5 S6 A' \- oThis site details a current systematic review and evaluation into the efficacy of PBL within the Nursing curriculum
: o% ~# c# J2 fOTHER WEB RESOURCES :
  j& C$ p% r) T- A% rCentre for Instructional Support, University of Colorado: http://www.uchsc.edu/CIS/PBL.html
University of Maastricht PBL site (A founder of the PBL model, with a wide variety of resources available): www.unimaas.nl/pbl/
5 ~1 M- m( h$ Q. E5 xAustralian PBL teaching & research network
University of Newcastle (comprehensive PBL bibliography): http://www.newcastle.edu.au/services/iesd/learndevelop/problarc/
, o( ?) Y, u' o( _9 A- K5 {2 ?Bibliography
: D1 |' _" Q% n, d1 }. hEngel, C.E. (1991) Not just a method but a way of learning. In Boud, D. and Feletti, G. (eds) The Challenge of Problem-Based Learning, London: Kogan Page, pp. 23-33
" S. Y" h4 [4 A; V. FBoud, D and Feletti, G (1997) The challenge of problem based learning 2nd edition London: Kogan Page
Margetson, D. (1991) Is there a future for problem-based education? Higher Education Review, 23(2), 33-47.
Margetson, D. (1994) Current educational reform and the significance of problem-based learning. Studies in Higher Education,19(1), 5-19
Murray, I. and Savin-Baden, M. (1999) Staff development in Problem-based learning. Teaching in Higher Education 5 (1)
7 Q% E% M% u! r. N6 |Ryan, G. (1993) Student perceptions about self-directed learning in a professional course implementing problem-based learning. Studies in Higher Education, 18(1), 53-63.
; n  J! g2 @" e. C$ XSavin-Baden, M (2000) Problem-based learning in Higher Education: Untold Stories. Buckingham: Open University Press/SRHE
Schwartz, P. (2001). Problem-based learning: Case studies, experience and practice. London, Kogan Page.
) w4 |$ g* n8 V1 I* E$ ?* \& |Author's Details
$ {$ l5 N* @2 }3 b+ g0 }Dr David Mills.
david.mills@c-sap.bham.ac.uk

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